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Proofs by Induction
No discussion of recursion and induction would be complete without some obligatory examples of proofs using induction. We start with the Hello World example.
Proofs by Induction
No discussion of recursion and induction would be complete without some obligatory examples of proofs using induction. We start with the Hello World example.
For our first version of a proof of , we clearly identify the open statement \(S_n\) and describe the proof carefully in terms of \(S_n\). As you develop more experience with writing proofs by induction, this will become less essential, as you'll see in the second version of the proof.
Proof
Let \(n\) be a positive integer, and let \(S_n\) be the open statement \[\begin{aligned}\end{aligned}\] We will prove that \(S_n\) is true for all positive integers by induction. For the basis step, we must prove that \(S_1\) is true. When \(n=1\), the left-hand side of \(S_n\) is just \(1\), while the right-hand side evaluates to \(1(1+1)/2=1\). Therefore, \(S_1\) is true.
Next we assume that for some positive integer \(k\), \(S_k\) is true. That is, we assume \[\begin{aligned}\end{aligned}\] We now seek to prove that \(S_{k+1}\) is true, and begin by considering the left-hand side of \(S_{k+1}\). We notice that \[\begin{aligned}\end{aligned}\] since our inductive hypothesis that \(S_k\) is true gives us the simpler formula for the summation. Now continuing with a bit of algebra, we find \[\begin{aligned}\end{aligned}\] Therefore, \(S_{k+1}\) is true. Since we have shown that \(S_1\) is true and that for every positive integer \(k\), if \(S_k\) is true, then \(S_{k+1}\) is true, we conclude that \(S_n\) is true for all positive integers \(n\) by the .
Before looking at a refined version of this proof, let's take a moment to discuss the key steps in every proof by induction. The first step is the basis step, in which the open statement \(S_1\) is shown to be true. (It's worth noting that there's nothing special about \(1\) here. If we want to prove only that \(S_n\) is true for all integers \(n\geq 5\), then proving that \(S_5\) is true is our basis step.) When proving the basis step, if \(S_n\) is an equation, we do not just write down \(S_1\) and move on. We need to prove that \(S_1\) is true. Notice how in the proof above, we discussed the left-hand side of \(S_1\) and the right-hand side of \(S_1\) and concluded that they were equal.
Now let's take a look at a more refined proof of . From here on, when we give a proof by induction, we'll use this style. As you're getting started with induction proofs, you may find it useful to be more explicit about the steps as we did in the first proof above.
Condensed: the full section is in Keller & Trotter, Applied Combinatorics.
이제 너 계산기는 이것을 해결하지 않지만, 그 조각은 계산 가능합니다. 아래의 하나를 시도하거나 자신의 것을 입력하십시오.
연습 (2)
먼저 종이에 각각을 시도해 보세요. 확인하기 위해 답을 드러내세요. 확인된 답은 각 단계의 솔버에서 열 수 있습니다.
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Suppose that \(t(n)\) is a recursive function defined for \(n\geq 1\) such that \(t(1)=1\) and for \(n\geq 2\), \(t(n)=2t(n-1)+1\). Create a proof that for all \(n\geq 1\), \(t(n) = 2^n - 1\).
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Write a couple of sentences explaining why the making the inductive hypothesis is not the same as assuming what we are trying to prove.
여기서 사용된 기호
기호를 탭하면 전체 정의, 이미지 및 각 문자의 의미를 확인할 수 있습니다.
사람들이 묻는 질문
Permutation or combination?
Ask whether order matters. A lock code is a permutation (order matters); a hand of cards is a combination (it does not).
What is a graph in this sense?
Dots (vertices) joined by lines (edges), not a plot. Road maps, social networks and molecules are graphs; questions like "is there a route" and "how few colours" are graph theory.
이 페이지의 일부는 다음에서 변경되었습니다. Keller & Trotter, Applied Combinatorics (CC BY-SA 4.0). 여기서 압축하고 다시 설명; 오류는 우리의.
에 더 Combinatorics & Graph Theory
The counting principlesPigeonhole principle and inclusion, exclusionBinomial coefficients and Pascal's triangleRecurrences and generating functionsGraphs: vertices, edges, degreesPaths, cycles, trees, Euler and HamiltonColouring and planar graphs