maths.free › Calculus › Series and sums

Series and sums

Partial sums, closed forms and convergence.

A sum with finitely many terms has a closed form found by pattern or induction; an infinite series converges when its partial sums approach a limit. Σ 1/n² = π²/6 is the Basel problem — Euler's first famous result.

Δουλεμένο παράδειγμα: sum of 1/n^2 for n = 1 to oo

Calculus · Series-And-Sums

Sum n^(-2) for n = 1 to oo

\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \frac{1}{n^{2}}

Βήμα προς βήμα

  1. \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \frac{1}{n^{2}}

    Write the sum out.

  2. 1 + \frac{1}{4} + \frac{1}{9} + \frac{1}{16} + \cdots

    The first few terms.

  3. S_{3} \approx 1.3611, S_{6} \approx 1.4914, S_{11} \approx 1.5580, S_{51} \approx 1.6255

    Partial sums approach the limit.

  4. = \frac{\pi^{2}}{6} \approx 1.6449

    Infinite series: this converges, and the closed form is the limit of the partial sums.

Αποκάλυψέ την.
\frac{\pi^{2}}{6}

Symbols used here

\sum_{k=1}^{n} a_k
summation
Add a_k for k = 1 up to n.
\infty
infinity
Not a number: "grows without bound" in limits and intervals.
\pi
pi
Ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter, 3.14159…
\approx
approximately equal
Equal to the precision shown, not exactly.
\sup,\ \inf
supremum, infimum
Least upper bound, greatest lower bound.
e
Euler's number
2.71828…, the base whose exponential is its own derivative.
\sin,\ \cos,\ \tan
sine, cosine, tangent
Ratios of sides in a right triangle; coordinates on the unit circle.
\log_b x,\ \ln x
logarithm, natural log
The exponent b must be raised to for x; ln uses base e.
\lim_{x \to a} f(x)
limit
The value f(x) approaches as x approaches a.
f'(x),\ \frac{dy}{dx}
derivative
Instantaneous rate of change; slope of the graph.
\int f(x)\,dx,\ \int_a^b
integral
Antiderivative (indefinite) or signed area from a to b (definite).
y',\ y''
first and second derivative of y
Prime notation for derivatives with respect to x (or t).
C,\ C_1,\ C_2
arbitrary constants
Constants of integration fixed by initial conditions.

How to: Series and sums

  1. Write the sum out.
  2. The first few terms.
  3. Partial sums approach the limit.
  4. Infinite series: this converges, and the closed form is the limit of the partial sums.

Questions people ask

What is a derivative in one sentence?

The slope of the graph at a point — the rate at which the output is changing there. Speed is the derivative of position.

What is an integral in one sentence?

The accumulated total of a rate — the area under the curve. Distance travelled is the integral of speed.

Why are derivatives and integrals opposites?

That is the fundamental theorem of calculus: accumulating a rate and then measuring how fast the accumulation grows gets you back the rate. Integration undoes differentiation up to a constant.

When do I use substitution and when integration by parts?

Substitution when part of the integrand is the derivative of another part (u and du both present). Parts when the integrand is a product of two unrelated kinds of function — a polynomial times an exponential, log or trig function.

Δοκίμασε μόνος σου.

Περισσότερα σε Calculus

LimitsDerivativesIntegralsDefinite integralsTaylor seriesMaxima and minimaThe chain ruleImplicit differentiationRelated rates and optimisationIntegration techniques: substitution, parts, partial fractionsApplications of integration: area, volume, arc lengthInfinite series and convergence tests