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Limits

Substitution, factoring and L'Hôpital's rule.

A limit asks what a function approaches, not what it equals. Try substitution first; if it gives 0/0, factor and cancel, or differentiate top and bottom (L'Hôpital). The graph shows the function near the point with the limit marked.

କାର୍ଯ୍ୟକାରୀ ଉଦାହରଣ: limit of sin(x)/x as x -> 0

Calculus · Limits

Limit of sin(x)/x as x → 0

\lim_{x \to 0} \frac{\sin{\left(x \right)}}{x}

ପଦକ୍ଷେପ କ୍ରମେ

  1. \lim_{x \to 0^+-} \frac{\sin{\left(x \right)}}{x}

    Try direct substitution first.

  2. \frac{0}{0}

    Substitution gives 0/0 — an indeterminate form.

  3. \lim \frac{\cos{\left(x \right)}}{1}

    L'Hôpital's rule: differentiate numerator and denominator separately.

  4. = 1

    Substitute.

ଉତ୍ତରକୁ ଖୋଲନ୍ତୁ
1

Symbols used here

\lim_{x \to a} f(x)
limit
The value f(x) approaches as x approaches a.
\sin,\ \cos,\ \tan
sine, cosine, tangent
Ratios of sides in a right triangle; coordinates on the unit circle.
\leq,\ \geq
less/greater than or equal
Inequalities that allow equality; < and > exclude it.
\pi
pi
Ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter, 3.14159…
e
Euler's number
2.71828…, the base whose exponential is its own derivative.
\infty
infinity
Not a number: "grows without bound" in limits and intervals.
\log_b x,\ \ln x
logarithm, natural log
The exponent b must be raised to for x; ln uses base e.
\sum_{k=1}^{n} a_k
summation
Add a_k for k = 1 up to n.
f'(x),\ \frac{dy}{dx}
derivative
Instantaneous rate of change; slope of the graph.
\int f(x)\,dx,\ \int_a^b
integral
Antiderivative (indefinite) or signed area from a to b (definite).
y',\ y''
first and second derivative of y
Prime notation for derivatives with respect to x (or t).
C,\ C_1,\ C_2
arbitrary constants
Constants of integration fixed by initial conditions.

How to: Limits

  1. Try direct substitution first.
  2. Substitution gives 0/0 — an indeterminate form.
  3. L'Hôpital's rule: differentiate numerator and denominator separately.
  4. Substitute.

Questions people ask

What is a derivative in one sentence?

The slope of the graph at a point — the rate at which the output is changing there. Speed is the derivative of position.

What is an integral in one sentence?

The accumulated total of a rate — the area under the curve. Distance travelled is the integral of speed.

Why are derivatives and integrals opposites?

That is the fundamental theorem of calculus: accumulating a rate and then measuring how fast the accumulation grows gets you back the rate. Integration undoes differentiation up to a constant.

When do I use substitution and when integration by parts?

Substitution when part of the integrand is the derivative of another part (u and du both present). Parts when the integrand is a product of two unrelated kinds of function — a polynomial times an exponential, log or trig function.

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ଅଧିକ Calculus

DerivativesIntegralsDefinite integralsTaylor seriesSeries and sumsMaxima and minimaThe chain ruleImplicit differentiationRelated rates and optimisationIntegration techniques: substitution, parts, partial fractionsApplications of integration: area, volume, arc lengthInfinite series and convergence tests