Understanding Student Loans

After completing this section, you should be able to:

1. Describe how to obtain a student loan.
2. Distinguish between federal and private student loans and state distinctions.
3. Understand the limits on student loans.
4. Summarize the standard prepayment plan.
5. Understand student loan consolidation.
6. Summarize and describe benefits or drawbacks of other repayment plans.
7. Summarize possible courses of action if a student loan defaults.

All college students are eligible to apply for a loan regardless of their financial situation or credit rating. Federal student loans do not require a co-signer or a credit check. Most students do not have a credit history when they begin college, and the federal government is aware of this. However, private loans will generally require a co-signer as well as a credit check. The co-signer will assume responsibility for paying off the loan if the student cannot make the payments.

The first step in applying for student loans is to fill out the FAFSA (Free Application for Student Aid). FAFSA determines financial need and what type of loan the student is qualified to obtain. For students who are still dependents on their parent’s taxes, the parents also fill out the FAFSA, as their wealth and income impacts what the dependent student is eligible for. Students who cannot demonstrate financial need will also be helped by applying with FAFSA, as it will help guide them to the type of loan most appropriate. The FAFSA must be submitted each year.

As soon as an offer letter from the college is received, the student should start the application process. The college will determine the loan amount needed. Also, there are limits on the amount a student can borrow. There are both yearly limits and aggregate limits. See the table later in this section that outlines the loan limits per school year and in the aggregate.

If the student receives a direct subsidized loan, there is a limit on the eligibility period. The time limit on eligibility depends on the college program into which the student enrolls. The school publishes how long a program is expected to take. The eligibility period is 150% of that published time. For example, if a student is enrolled in a 4-year program, such as a bachelor’s degree program, their eligibility period is 6 years, as 1.50(4) = 6. Therefore, the student may receive direct subsidized loans for a period of 6 years.

Once a tuition statement is received, and all the non-loan awards are analyzed that are applicable to the costs of college (such as scholarships and grants), there still may be quite of bit of an expense to attend college. This difference between what college will cost (including tuition, room and board, books, computers) and the non-loan awards received is the college funding gap.

There are several loan types, which basically break down into four broad categories: subsidized loans, unsubsidized loans, PLUS loans, and private loans. These loans are meant to fill the college funding gap.

Federal subsidized loans are backed by the U.S. Department of Education. These loans are intended for undergraduate students who can demonstrate financial need. Subsidized federal loans, including Stafford loans, defer payments until the student has graduated. During the deferment, the government pays the interest while the student is enrolled at least half-time. These loans are generally made directly to students. However, there are restrictions on how the money can be used. It can only be used for tuition, room and board, computers, books, fees, and college-related expenses. Interest rates are not based on the financial markets but determined by Congress. Federal loans are backed by the Department of Education.

Federal unsubsidized loans, including unsubsidized Stafford loans, are available for undergraduate and graduate students who cannot demonstrate financial need. If the student meets the program requirements, they are automatically approved. The student is not required to pay these loans during their time in college (enrolled at least half-time). However, the interest rate is generally higher and there is no deferment period, as with subsidized loans. Interest begins accruing as soon as the money is disbursed.

Student loans, in general, have a term of 10 years, that is, the loans are paid back over 10 years. This can vary, but 10 years is the standard.

Condensed — the full section is in OpenStax Contemporary Mathematics.

As mentioned earlier, there are limits to how much a student can borrow, per year and in total. The following table shows a general breakdown of the amounts the federal government and private lenders will lend. Amounts are based on level of need and whether the student is a dependent or an independent student. Independent students include those who are at least 24 years old, married, a professional, a graduate student, a veteran, a member of the armed forces, an emancipated minor, or an orphan. The amounts shown are as of this writing in 2022.

Check out this Edvisors page on the limits of student borrowing to learn more!

Putting this all together, we have a way to determine the student loans needed for a student to attend college.

At each step, if the student and family can cover some or all of the gap, they can do so without taking out a loan.

Condensed — the full section is in OpenStax Contemporary Mathematics.

Student loans are first and foremost loans. Students will pay them back and will pay interest. In the fall of 2022, the federal student loan interest rate was 4.99%. Private student loans rates ranged between 3.22% and 13.95%. Finding the lowest interest rate you can helps with the payments, and especially helps if the loan is not federally subsidized. Remember, if the loan is not federally subsidized, the student is on the hook for the interest that is accumulating with the loan.

The interest on student loans begins as soon as the loan is disbursed (paid to the borrower). When the loan is federally subsidized, the government pays that interest for the student. This means the loan for a subsidized loan of $3,000 is still a loan for $3,000 when the student graduates. However, if the loan is not federally subsidized, the student is responsible for the interest that accrues on the loan. The $3,000 loan from year 1 of college is now a loan for more due to that added interest. The interest on that loan grew while the student was in college. The formula for growth of the loan’s balance is the same as compound interest formula from Compound Interest, \(A=P{(1+\frac{r}{n})}^{nt}\).

There are various repayment plans available. The one most likely to apply to a student loan is the standard repayment plan, which is available to everyone. Borrowers pay a fixed amount monthly so the loan is paid in full within 10 years. Consolidated loans, discussed later in this section, also qualify for the standard repayment plan, and may allow the payoff period to range from 10 to 30 years. Direct subsidized and unsubsidized loans, PLUS loans, and federal Stafford loans are eligible.

Since these are loans, they are paid back with interest. As with most installment loans, their payments are due monthly. The formula for paying back these loans is the same as the formula used for paying loans in The Basics of Loans:

Using that formula, we can calculate how much the payment is for a student loan. Remember that all loan payments are rounded up to the next penny.

Condensed — the full section is in OpenStax Contemporary Mathematics.

When a student graduates, they may have multiple different student loans. Keeping track of them and paying them off separately can be a burden. Instead, these loans can be consolidated into a single loan. If they are federal loans the combination is called federal consolidation. Combining private loans is often referred to as refinancing. Refinancing, or private consolidation, can be used to combine both private and federal student loans. Be aware that consolidated federal loans may still be subject to the rules and protections that govern subsidized loans. Refinancing loans, private or federal, are no longer subject to those rules and guidelines. Check out this Experian article about consolidation and refinancing for more deatil.

In consolidation of federal direct student loans, the interest rate is the weighted average of the interest rates on the subsidized loans. This means the interest rate remains the same. However, if the term is extended, then the student will pay back more over time than if they did not extend the loan term.

In refinancing, it is possible to obtain a lower interest rate on the student loans, which may lower how much is paid per month and lower the total paid back over time. These monthly payments are calculated using the same formula as for any other loan payment, \(pmt=\frac{P\times (r/n)\times {(1+r/n)}^{n\times t}}{{(1+r/n)}^{n\times t}-1}\). The term of the refinanced loan may also be changed, which would also impact the payment per month.

In either case, consolidating or refinancing, the monthly financial burden on the student can decrease. However, if the term is extended, the total amount repaid may increase.

Condensed — the full section is in OpenStax Contemporary Mathematics.

There are various other repayment plans available to students. Plans other than the standard repayment plan typically require the student to meet certain criteria. The following plans are independent of student income, but may make early payments easier.

• Graduated repayment plans are plans where the amount of payments gradually increases so that the loan is paid off in 10 years, or within 10 to 30 years for consolidated loans. Payments start off small and increase approximately every 2 years. Almost all loan types are eligible, including direct subsidized and unsubsidized loans, Stafford loans, PLUS loans, and consolidated loans.
• Extended repayment plans are available to the direct loan borrower if the outstanding direct loans are over $30,000. The payments, fixed or graduated, are designed so that the loans are satisfied within 25 years. Eligible loans include both direct subsidized or unsubsidized loans, Stafford loans, PLUS loans, and consolidated loans.

If student earnings are such that the standard, graduated, or extended repayment plans are unaffordable, then one can make payments that are based on their discretionary income. Discretionary income is federally defined to be the difference between (adjusted) gross income and 150% of the poverty guideline for location and family size. This discretionary income then depends on where one lives (contiguous United States or Hawaii or Alaska) and how many dependents one has. If married, a spouse’s income will be included in the adjusted gross income. Understanding discretionary income is necessary to understand how income driven payments plans work.

The following plans all depend on discretionary income.

There are many similarities among these repayment plans, and it is easy to misunderstand the nuances of each. Therefore, be careful entering into any type of repayment contract until you fully understand all the details and repercussions of the plan you choose. For more detail, see this nerdwallet article "Income-Driven Repayment: Is It Right for You?" to learn more!

With those possible drawbacks, great care must be taken to avoid large problems down the line.

Condensed — the full section is in OpenStax Contemporary Mathematics.

The first day a payment is late, the account becomes delinquent. After 90 days, this delinquency is reported to the credit bureaus, and goes into default. This is serious, as now a credit score is affected, meaning that it will be harder to buy a car, a home, get a credit card, or a cell phone. Even renting an apartment may be a task not easily overcome. The default rate for students who do not complete their degree is three times higher than for students who do.

Further, defaulting on a student loan may mean that the borrower loses eligibility for repayment plans, as the balance and any unpaid interest may become due immediately, and any tax refunds may be withheld and applied to the loan, and wages may be garnished. One should immediately contact your loan servicer and try to make other arrangements for repayment if this situation becomes apparent, as different repayment plans are available, if actions are taken quickly.

There are several options that may be open to avoid defaulting. One is called rehabilitation, or is the process in which a borrower may bring a student loan out of default by adhering to specified repayment requirements, and the other is consolidation. Certain criteria must be met to enter these programs.

Both of these options are detailed, including the criteria required for eligibility, on the studentaid.gov loan management page.

Professionals advise hiring an attorney if one of these paths is chosen.

• The FAFSA must be filled out each year that a student wishes to borrow for.
• A student’s funding gap determines how much they need in loans to pay for college.
• Federal subsidized student loans defer payments until after graduation and interest does not accrue on these loans.
• Unsubsidized student loans defer payment until after graduation but interest begins accruing as soon as the loan finds are disbursed.
• There are both yearly and aggregate limits for student loans to prevent over-borrowing, among other reasons.
• Federal direct loans have a low interest rate set by the government, but other student loans have varying rates of interest set by the banks.
• The standard repayment plan lasts 10 years and is made up of monthly payments.
• Consolidating or refinancing student loans merges many student loans into one loan.
• If only federal loans are consolidated, the interest rate is the same as the individual loans, currently set at 4.99%.
• If other loans are refinanced together, the interest rate may be lower with the new loan.
• Other repayment plans are available. Such a plan may have payment that start small and grow as the loan is paid off, or it may have a longer term, or may be based on the discretionary income of the student.
• Being delinquent on a student loan is a precursor to being in default. Making payments in a timely fashion allows the student to avoid this situation.

\(\text{funding gap}=\text{total cost}-\text{all aid}\)

\(A=P{(1+\frac{r}{n})}^{nt}\)

\(pmt=\frac{P\times (r/n)\times {(1+r/n)}^{n\times t}}{{(1+r/n)}^{n\times t}-1}\)

\(\text{discretionary income}=\text{gross income}-1.5\times \text{poverty guideline}\)