The Sylow Theorems

We will use what we have learned about group actions to prove the Sylow Theorems. Recall for a moment what it means for \(G\) to act on itself by conjugation and how conjugacy classes are distributed in the group according to the class equation, discussed in . A group \(G\) acts on itself by conjugation via the map \((g,x) \mapsto gxg^{-1}\). Let \(x_1, \ldots, x_k\) be representatives from each of the distinct conjugacy classes of \(G\) that consist of more than one element. Then the class equation can be written as \[\begin{aligned}\end{aligned}\], where \(Z(G) = \{g \in G : gx = xg \text{ for all } x \in G\}\) is the center of \(G\) and \(C(x_i) = \{ g \in G : g x_i = x_i g \}\) is the centralizer subgroup of \(x_i\).

We begin our investigation of the Sylow Theorems by examining subgroups of order \(p\), where \(p\) is prime. A group \(G\) is a \(p\)-group if every element in \(G\) has as its order a power of \(p\), where \(p\) is a prime number. A subgroup of a group \(G\) is a \(p\)-subgroup if it is a \(p\)-group.

Theorem: Cauchy

Let \(G\) be a finite group and \(p\) a prime such that \(p\) divides the order of \(G\). Then \(G\) contains a subgroup of order \(p\).

Proof

We will use induction on the order of \(G\). If \(|G|=p\), then clearly \(G\) itself is the required subgroup. We now assume that every group of order \(k\), where \(p \leq k \lt n\) and \(p\) divides \(k\), has an element of order \(p\). Assume that \(|G|= n\) and \(p \mid n\) and consider the class equation of \(G\): \[\begin{aligned}\end{aligned}\]. We have two cases.

Suppose the order of one of the centralizer subgroups, \(C(x_i)\), is divisible by \(p\) for some \(i\), \(i = 1, \ldots, k\). In this case, by our induction hypothesis, we are done. Since \(C(x_i)\) is a proper subgroup of \(G\) and \(p\) divides \(|C(x_i)|\), \(C(x_i)\) must contain an element of order \(p\). Hence, \(G\) must contain an element of order \(p\).

Suppose the order of no centralizer subgroup is divisible by \(p\). Then \(p\) divides \([G:C(x_i)]\), the order of each conjugacy class in the class equation; hence, \(p\) must divide the center of \(G\), \(Z(G)\). Since \(Z(G)\) is abelian, it must have a subgroup of order \(p\) by the Fundamental Theorem of Finite Abelian Groups. Therefore, the center of \(G\) contains an element of order \(p\).

Example

Let us consider the group \(A_5\). We know that \(|A_5| = 60 = 2^2 \cdot 3 \cdot 5\). By Cauchy's Theorem, we are guaranteed that \(A_5\) has subgroups of orders \(2\), \(3\) and \(5\). The Sylow Theorems will give us even more information about the possible subgroups of \(A_5\).

We are now ready to state and prove the first of the Sylow Theorems. The proof is very similar to the proof of Cauchy's Theorem.

Theorem: First Sylow Theorem

Let \(G\) be a finite group and \(p\) a prime such that \(p^r\) divides \(|G|\). Then \(G\) contains a subgroup of order \(p^r\).

Proof

We induct on the order of \(G\) once again. If \(|G| = p\), then we are done. Now suppose that the order of \(G\) is \(n\) with \(n \gt p\) and that the theorem is true for all groups of order less than \(n\), where \(p\) divides \(n\). We shall apply the class equation once again: \[\begin{aligned}\end{aligned}\]. First suppose that \(p\) does not divide \([G:C(x_i)]\) for some \(i\). Then \(p^r \mid |C(x_i)|\), since \(p^r\) divides \(|G| = |C(x_i)| \cdot [G:C(x_i)]\). Now we can apply the induction hypothesis to \(C(x_i)\).

Hence, we may assume that \(p\) divides \([G:C(x_i)]\) for all \(i\). Since \(p\) divides \(|G|\), the class equation says that \(p\) must divide \(|Z(G)|\); hence, by Cauchy's Theorem, \(Z(G)\) has an element of order \(p\), say \(g\). Let \(N\) be the group generated by \(g\). Clearly, \(N\) is a normal subgroup of \(Z(G)\) since \(Z(G)\) is abelian; therefore, \(N\) is normal in \(G\) since every element in \(Z(G)\) commutes with every element in \(G\). Now consider the factor group \(G/N\) of order \(|G|/p\). By the induction hypothesis, \(G/N\) contains a subgroup \(H\) of order \(p^{r- 1}\). The inverse image of \(H\) under the canonical homomorphism \(\phi : G \rightarrow G/N\) is a subgroup of order \(p^r\) in \(G\).

A Sylow \(p\)-subgroup \(P\) of a group \(G\) is a maximal \(p\)-subgroup of \(G\). To prove the other two Sylow Theorems, we need to consider conjugate subgroups as opposed to conjugate elements in a group. For a group \(G\), let \({\mathcal S}\) be the collection of all subgroups of \(G\). For any subgroup \(H\), \({\mathcal S}\) is a \(H\)-set, where \(H\) acts on \({\mathcal S}\) by conjugation. That is, we have an action \[\begin{aligned}\end{aligned}\] defined by \[\begin{aligned}\end{aligned}\] for \(K\) in \({\mathcal S}\).

The set \(N(H)\) normalizer of s subgroup \(H\) \[\begin{aligned}\end{aligned}\] is a subgroup of \(G\) called the the normalizer of \(H\) in \(G\). Notice that \(H\) is a normal subgroup of \(N(H)\). In fact, \(N(H)\) is the largest subgroup of \(G\) in which \(H\) is normal.

Lemma

Let \(P\) be a Sylow \(p\)-subgroup of a finite group \(G\) and let \(x\) have as its order a power of \(p\). If \(x^{-1} P x = P\), then \(x \in P\).

Proof

Certainly \(x \in N(P)\), and the cyclic subgroup, \(\langle xP \rangle \subset N(P)/P\), has as its order a power of \(p\). By the Correspondence Theorem there exists a subgroup \(H\) of \(N(P)\) containing \(P\) such that \(H/P = \langle xP \rangle\). Since \(|H| = |P| \cdot |\langle xP \rangle|\), the order of \(H\) must be a power of \(p\). However, \(P\) is a Sylow \(p\)-subgroup contained in \(H\). Since the order of \(P\) is the largest power of \(p\) dividing \(|G|\), \(H=P\). Therefore, \(H/P\) is the trivial subgroup and \(xP = P\), or \(x \in P\).

Lemma

Let \(H\) and \(K\) be subgroups of \(G\). The number of distinct \(H\)-conjugates of \(K\) is \([H:N(K) \cap H]\).

Proof

We define a bijection between the conjugacy classes of \(K\) and the right cosets of \(N(K) \cap H\) by \(h^{-1}Kh \mapsto (N(K) \cap H)h\). To show that this map is a bijection, let \(h_1, h_2 \in H\) and suppose that \((N(K) \cap H)h_1 = (N(K) \cap H)h_2\). Then \(h_2 h_1^{-1} \in N(K)\). Therefore, \(K = h_2 h_1^{-1} K h_1 h_2^{-1}\) or \(h_1^{-1} K h_1 = h_2^{-1} K h_2\), and the map is an injection. It is easy to see that this map is surjective; hence, we have a one-to-one and onto map between the \(H\)-conjugates of \(K\) and the right cosets of \(N(K) \cap H\) in \(H\).

Theorem: Second Sylow Theorem

Let \(G\) be a finite group and \(p\) a prime dividing \(|G|\). Then all Sylow \(p\)-subgroups of \(G\) are conjugate. That is, if \(P_1\) and \(P_2\) are two Sylow \(p\)-subgroups, there exists a \(g \in G\) such that \(g P_1 g^{-1} = P_2\).

Proof

Let \(P\) be a Sylow \(p\)-subgroup of \(G\) and suppose that \(|G|=p^r m\) with \(|P|=p^r\). Let \[\begin{aligned}\end{aligned}\] consist of the distinct conjugates of \(P\) in \(G\). By , \(k = [G: N(P)]\). Notice that \[\begin{aligned}\end{aligned}\]. Since \(p^r\) divides \(|N(P)|\), \(p\) cannot divide \(k\).

Given any other Sylow \(p\)-subgroup \(Q\), we must show that \(Q \in {\mathcal S}\). Consider the \(Q\)-conjugacy classes of each \(P_i\). Clearly, these conjugacy classes partition \({\mathcal S}\). The size of the partition containing \(P_i\) is \([Q :N(P_i) \cap Q]\) by , and Lagrange's Theorem tells us that \(|Q| = [Q :N(P_i) \cap Q] |N(P_i) \cap Q|\). Thus, \([Q :N(P_i) \cap Q]\) must be a divisor of \(|Q|= p^r\). Hence, the number of conjugates in every equivalence class of the partition is a power of \(p\). However, since \(p\) does not divide \(k\), one of these equivalence classes must contain only a single Sylow \(p\)-subgroup, say \(P_j\). In this case, \(x^{-1} P_j x = P_j\) for all \(x \in Q\). By , \(P_j = Q\).

Theorem: Third Sylow Theorem

Let \(G\) be a finite group and let \(p\) be a prime dividing the order of \(G\). Then the number of Sylow \(p\)-subgroups is congruent to \(1 \pmod{p}\) and divides \(|G|\).

Proof

Let \(P\) be a Sylow \(p\)-subgroup acting on the set of Sylow \(p\)-subgroups, \[\begin{aligned}\end{aligned}\], by conjugation. From the proof of the Second Sylow Theorem, the only \(P\)-conjugate of \(P\) is itself and the order of the other \(P\)-conjugacy classes is a power of \(p\). Each \(P\)-conjugacy class contributes a positive power of \(p\) toward \(|{\mathcal S}|\) except the equivalence class \(\{ P \}\). Since \(|{\mathcal S}|\) is the sum of positive powers of \(p\) and \(1\), \(|{\mathcal S}| \equiv 1 \pmod{p}\).

Now suppose that \(G\) acts on \({\mathcal S}\) by conjugation. Since all Sylow \(p\)-subgroups are conjugate, there can be only one orbit under this action. For \(P \in {\mathcal S}\), \[\begin{aligned}\end{aligned}\] by . But \([G : N(P)]\) is a divisor of \(|G|\); consequently, the number of Sylow \(p\)-subgroups of a finite group must divide the order of the group.

Historical Note

Peter Ludvig Mejdell Sylow was born in 1832 in Christiania, Norway (now Oslo). After attending Christiania University, Sylow taught high school. In 1862 he obtained a temporary appointment at Christiania University. Even though his appointment was relatively brief, he influenced students such as Sophus Lie (18421899). Sylow had a chance at a permanent chair in 1869, but failed to obtain the appointment. In 1872, he published a 10-page paper presenting the theorems that now bear his name. Later Lie and Sylow collaborated on a new edition of Abel's works. In 1898, a chair at Christiania University was finally created for Sylow through the efforts of his student and colleague Lie. Sylow died in 1918.

Symbols used here

a \equiv b \pmod n

congruent modulo n
n divides a − b; a and b have the same remainder.

a \mid b,\ \gcd(a,b)

divides, greatest common divisor
b is a multiple of a; the largest number dividing both.

x \in A,\ A \subseteq B

element of, subset
x belongs to A; every element of A is in B.

A \cup B,\ A \cap B,\ A \setminus B

union, intersection, difference
In either; in both; in A but not B.

y',\ y''

first and second derivative of y
Prime notation for derivatives with respect to x (or t).

i

imaginary unit
i² = −1.

\pm

plus or minus
Both signs at once: x = 3 ± 2 means 5 and 1.

\leq,\ \geq

less/greater than or equal
Inequalities that allow equality; < and > exclude it.

\mathbb{N},\ \mathbb{Z},\ \mathbb{Q},\ \mathbb{R},\ \mathbb{C}

number sets
Naturals, integers, rationals, reals, complex numbers.

\blacksquare\ \text{or}\ \square

end of proof (halmos)
Marks the point where the statement has been established.

(G, \cdot),\ e,\ g^{-1}

group, identity, inverse
A set with an operation; the do-nothing element; the element that undoes g.

G \cong H,\ G / N

isomorphic, quotient group
Same structure; the group of cosets of a normal subgroup N.

\mathbb{Z}/n\mathbb{Z},\ \mathbb{Z}_n

integers modulo n
The remainders 0…n−1 with clock arithmetic.

\operatorname{Hom}(A, B),\ f \circ g

arrows from A to B, composition
The set of morphisms; do g then f.

Questions people ask

What is a group, in plain words?

A set with one operation that is associative, has an identity, and lets every element be undone. Symmetries of any object form a group — that is where the idea came from.

What is the difference between a ring and a field?

A ring has addition and multiplication that behave like the integers (you cannot always divide); a field is a ring where every non-zero element has a reciprocal, like the rationals or the reals.

The Sylow Theorems